Notes on Research Aptitude

What is Research?

Research is a systematic inquiry that investigates hypotheses, suggests new interpretations of data or texts, and poses new questions for future research to explore.

Research is a process to discover new knowledge. “A systematic investigation ( i.e., the gathering and analysis of information) designed to develop or contribute to generalizable knowledge.” The National Academy of Sciences states that the object of research is to “extend human knowledge of the physical, biological, or social world beyond what is already known.” Research is different than other forms of discovering knowledge (like reading a book) because it uses a systematic process called the Scientific Method.

The Scientific Method consists of observing the world around you and creating a hypothesis about relationships in the world. A hypothesis is an informed and educated prediction or explanation about something. Part of the research process involves testing the hypothesis , and then examining the results of these tests as they relate to both the hypothesis and the world around you. When a researcher forms a hypothesis, this acts like a map through the research study. It tells the researcher which factors are important to study and how they might be related to each other or caused by a manipulation that the researcher introduces (e.g. a program, treatment or change in the environment). With this map, the researcher can interpret the information he/she collects and can make sound conclusions about the results.

Research consists of:

·         Asking a question that nobody has asked before;

·         Doing the necessary work to find the answer; and

·         Communicating the knowledge you have acquired to a larger audience.

Research can be done with human beings, animals, plants, other organisms and inorganic matter. When research is done with human beings and animals, it must follow specific rules about the treatment of humans and animals that have been created by the U.S. Federal Government. This ensures that humans and animals are treated with dignity and respect, and that the research causes minimal harm.

No matter what topic is being studied, the value of the research depends on how well it is designed and done. Therefore, one of the most important considerations in doing good research is to follow the design or plan that is developed by an experienced researcher who is called the Principal Investigator (PI). The PI is in charge of all aspects of the research and creates what is called a protocol (the research plan) that all people doing the research must follow. By doing so, the PI and the public can be sure that the results of the research are real and useful to other scientists.

Research Definition:

Systematic investigative process employed to increase or revise current knowledge by discovering new facts.

It is divided into two general categories:

1.  Basic research is inquiry aimed at increasing scientific knowledge, and

2.  Applied research is effort aimed at using basic research for solving problems or developing new processes, products, or techniques.

Research helps to foster faculty-student collaboration within and outside the university. You have the opportunity to share in a professional researcher’s work, to learn how he or she formulates a significant question, develops a procedure to investigate it, obtains research funding and other resources, gathers and examines evidence, follows hunches, and evaluates and shares results with the scientific community.

Getting involved in research allows you to draw together classroom learning and particular interests to contribute to the design and execution of a research project.

Aims of Research

The general aims of research are:

·         Observe and Describe

·         Predict

·         Determination of the Causes

·         Explain

Steps of Research Method:

Activities are involved in Research?

In practice, research methods vary widely, depending upon the academic discipline’s accepted standards, the individual researcher’s preferences, or a particular study’s needs. Research in science and engineering often involves conducting experiments in the lab or in the field. Research in the arts, humanities, and social sciences may include archival work in the library or on the internet, conducting surveys or in-depth interviews, and a wide range of creative and artistic projects- from costume design to playwriting to curating a fine arts exhibit.

Research is not a solitary activity –but an act of community. As a member of the research community, you build on the knowledge that others have acquired and provide a road map for those who follow. You add to a body of work that will never be complete. Research is an ongoing, collaborative process with no finish line in sight.

Should I opt for research as career?

To determine if research is right for you, consider the following:

·         Are you interested in a more thorough exploration of a subject you are already familiar with?

·         Are you interested in being introduced to a new subject?

·         What motivates you? Trying what others have never done? Getting to know faculty better? Exploring the real-world by undertaking research with an external organization?

·         What do you hope to gain from the research experience? Do you want to help create new information and knowledge? Practice or develop new skills?

·         Do you want to test your skill sets in a professional setting to determine your likes and dislikes?

·         Are you hoping this experience will help you decide whether to attend graduate or professional school?

·         Do you have time for a 10-15 hour/week commitment? Can you commit during the quarter, multiple quarters, or summer?

·         Do you wish to receive academic credit?

·         Do you want/need a salary/stipend/scholarship?

·         Are you willing to do volunteer work?

The General Idea:

1.    A thesis is a hypothesis or conjecture.

2.    A PhD dissertation is a lengthy, formal document that argues in defense of a particular thesis. (So many people use the term “thesis” to refer to the document that a current dictionary now includes it as the third meaning of “thesis”).

3.    Two important adjectives used to describe a dissertation are “original” and “substantial.” The research performed to support a thesis must be both, and the dissertation must show it to be so. In particular, a dissertation highlights original contributions.

4.    The scientific method means starting with a hypothesis and then collecting evidence to support or deny it. Before one can write a dissertation defending a particular thesis, one must collect evidence that supports it. Thus, the most difficult aspect of writing a dissertation consists of organizing the evidence and associated discussions into a coherent form.

5.    The essence of a dissertation is critical thinking, not experimental data. Analysis and concepts form the heart of the work.

6.    A dissertation concentrates on principles: it states the lessons learned, and not merely the facts behind them.

7.    In general, every statement in a dissertation must be supported either by a reference to published scientific literature or by original work. Moreover, a dissertation does not repeat the details of critical thinking and analysis found in published sources; it uses the results as fact and refers the reader to the source for further details.

8.    Each sentence in a dissertation must be complete and correct in a grammatical sense. Moreover, a dissertation must satisfy the stringent rules of formal grammar (e.g., no contractions, no colloquialisms, no slurs, no undefined technical jargon, no hidden jokes, and no slang, even when such terms or phrases are in common use in the spoken language). Indeed, the writing in a dissertaton must be crystal clear. Shades of meaning matter; the terminology and prose must make fine distinctions. The words must convey exactly the meaning intended, nothing more and nothing less.

9.    Each statement in a dissertation must be correct and defensible in a logical and scientific sense. Moreover, the discussions in a dissertation must satisfy the most stringent rules of logic applied to mathematics and science.

Definitions And Terminology:

1.    Each technical term used in a dissertation must be defined either by a reference to a previously published definition (for standard terms with their usual meaning) or by a precise, unambiguous definition that appears before the term is used (for a new term or a standard term used in an unusual way).

2.    Each term should be used in one and only one way throughout the dissertation.

3.    The easiest way to avoid a long series of definitions is to include a statement: “the terminology used throughout this document follows that given in [CITATION].” Then, only define exceptions.

4.    The introductory chapter can give the intuition (i.e., informal definitions) of terms provided they are defined more precisely later.

Terms And Phrases To Avoid:

·         adverbs

Mostly, they are very often overly used. Use strong words instead. For example, one could say, “Writers abuse adverbs.”

·         jokes or puns

They have no place in a formal document.

·         “bad”, “good”, “nice”, “terrible”, “stupid”

A scientific dissertation does not make moral judgements. Use “incorrect/correct” to refer to factual correctness or errors. Use precise words or phrases to assess quality (e.g., “method A requires less computation than method B”). In general, one should avoid all qualitative judgements.

·         “true”, “pure”,

In the sense of “good” (it is judgemental).

·         “perfect”

Nothing is.

·         “an ideal solution”

You’re judging again.

·         “today”, “modern times”

Today is tomorrow’s yesterday.

·         “soon”

How soon? Later tonight? Next decade?

·         “we were surprised to learn…”

Even if you were, so what?

·         “seems”, “seemingly”,

It doesn’t matter how something appears;

·         “would seem to show”

all that matters are the facts.

·         “in terms of”

usually vague

·         “based on”, “X-based”, “as the basis of”

careful; can be vague

·         “different”

Does not mean “various”; different than what?

·         “in light of”

colloquial

·         “lots of”

vague & colloquial

·         “kind of”

vague & colloquial

·         “type of”

vague & colloquial

·         “something like”

vague & colloquial

·         “just about”

vague & colloquial

·         “number of”

vague; do you mean “some”, “many”, or “most”? A quantative statement is preferable.

·         “due to”

colloquial

·         “probably”

only if you know the statistical probability (if you do, state it quantatively

·         “obviously, clearly”

be careful: obvious/clear to everyone?

·         “simple”

Can have a negative connotation, as in “simpleton”

·         “along with”

Just use “with”

·         “actually, really”

define terms precisely to eliminate the need to clarify

·         “the fact that”

makes it a meta-sentence; rephrase

·         “this”, “that”

o    As in “This causes concern.” Reason: “this” can refer to the subject of the previous sentence, the entire previous sentence, the entire previous paragraph, the entire previous section, etc. More important, it can be interpreted in the concrete sense or in the meta-sense. For example, in:

“X does Y. This means …”

the reader can assume “this” refers to Y or to the fact that X does it. Even when restricted (e.g., “this computation…”), the phrase is weak and often ambiguous.

·         “You will read about…”

The second person has no place in a formal dissertation.

·         “I will describe…”

The first person has no place in a formal dissertation. If self-reference is essential, phrase it as “Section 10 describes…”

·         “we” as in “we see that”

A trap to avoid. Reason: almost any sentence can be written to begin with “we” because “we” can refer to: the reader and author, the author and advisor, the author and research team, experimental computer scientists, the entire computer science community, the science community, or some other unspecified group.

·         “Hopefully, the program…”

Computer programs don’t hope, not unless they implement AI systems. By the way, if you are writing an AI thesis, talk to someone else: AI people have their own system of rules.

·         “…a famous researcher…”

It doesn’t matter who said it or who did it. In fact, such statements prejudice the reader.

·         Be Careful When Using “few, most, all, any, every”.

A dissertation is precise. If a sentence says “Most computer systems contain X”, you must be able to defend it. Are you sure you really know the facts? How many computers were built and sold yesterday?

·         “must”, “always”

Absolutely?

·         “should”

Who says so?

·         “proof”, “prove”

Would a mathematician agree that it’s a proof?

·         “show”

Used in the sense of “prove”. To “show” something, you need to provide a formal proof.

·         “can/may”

Your mother probably told you the difference.

Knowledge Vs. Data

·         The facts that result from an experiment are called “data”. The term “knowledge” implies that the facts have been analyzed, condensed, or combined with facts from other experiments to produce useful information.

Cause and Effect:

A dissertation must carefully separate cause-effect relationships from simple statistical correlations. For example, even if all computer programs written in Professor X’s lab require more memory than the computer programs written in Professor Y’s lab, it may not have anything to do with the professors or the lab or the programmers (e.g., maybe the people working in professor X’s lab are working on applications that require more memory than the applications in professor Y’s lab).

Commerce and Science:

In a scientific dissertation, one never draws conclusions about the economic viability or commercial success of an idea/method, nor does one speculate about the history of development or origins of an idea. A scientist must remain objective about the merits of an idea independent of its commercial popularity. In particular, a scientist never assumes that commercial success is a valid measure of merit (many popular products are neither well-designed nor well-engineered). Thus, statements such as “over four hundred vendors make products using technique Y” are irrelevant in a dissertation.

Politics And Science:

·         A scientist avoids all political influence when assessing ideas. Obviously, it should not matter whether government bodies, political parties, religious groups, or other organizations endorse an idea. More important and often overlooked, it does not matter whether an idea originated with a scientist who has already won a Nobel prize or a first-year graduate student. One must assess the idea independent of the source.

Canonical Organization:

·         In general, every dissertation must define the problem that motivated the research, tell why that problem is important, tell what others have done, describe the new contribution, document the experiments that validate the contribution, and draw conclusions. There is no canonical organization for a dissertation; each is unique. However, novices writing a dissertation in the experimental areas of CS may find the following example a good starting point:

·          

·         Chapter 1: Introduction

An overview of the problem; why it is important; a summary of extant work and a statement of your hypothesis or specific question to be explored. Make it readable by anyone.

·         Chapter 2: Definitions

New terms only. Make the definitions precise, concise, and unambiguous.

·         Chapter 3: Conceptual Model

Describe the central concept underlying your work. Make it a “theme” that ties together all your arguments. It should provide an answer to the question posed in the introduction at a conceptual level. If necessary, add another chapter to give additional reasoning about the problem or its solution.

·         Chapter 4: Experimental Measurements

Describe the results of experiments that provide evidence in support of your thesis. Usually experiments either emphasize proof-of-concept (demonstrating the viability of a method/technique) or efficiency (demonstrating that a method/technique provides better performance than those that exist).

·         Chapter 5: Corollaries And Consequences

Describe variations, extensions, or other applications of the central idea.

·         Chapter 6: Conclusions

Summarize what was learned and how it can be applied. Mention the possibilities for future research.

·         Abstract:

A short (few paragraphs) summary of the the dissertation. Describe the problem and the research approach. Emphasize the original contributions.

Conferences can include a variety of events such as roundtables, workshops, lectures, etc. Depending on what you want to achieve with your conference, you might find it useful to familiarize yourself with the different types of conferences:

Types of Conferences

Conventions

The largest type of conference, which is usually a gathering of delegates from various groups

Conference

The most general term to indicate a meeting for discussion – most commonly adopted by associations and organizations for their regular meetings. It is usually associated with the most traditional type of presentation, that is, papers followed by questions.

Symposium

Nowadays, this describes a meeting to discuss a particular subject, but its original meaning defines it as a drinking party devoted to conversation and following a banquet. A symposium thus has a slightly more informal character than a conference.

Seminar

The first meaning of this term refers to a group of students studying under a professor with each doing research and all exchanging results through reports and discussions. Its second definition: ‘debating special issues’ preserves the conversational character of the term ‘seminar’.

Colloquium

This term indicates both a traditional conference and a conversational seminar. Colloquia tend to privilege the aspect of debate.

Workshop

Taken from the language of manufacturing, the term workshop indicates a brief intensive educational program for a small group of people that focuses on techniques and skills in a particular field. In academia, it is adopted to describe meetings reserved for small groups of specialists who come together for concerted activities or discussion.

Roundtable

The roundness of the table clearly symbolizes the equality of all participants. Each of them will have the same right to take the floor. Roundtables commonly bring together academics who usually are invited as key-note speakers. Discussion nevertheless plays the leading role in this kind of meeting.

Lectures

A lecture is a formal presentation conducted by your lecturer. The lecture method is convenient and usually makes the most sense, especially with larger classroom sizes. Lectures will normally be held in a lecture theatre and last between 1 to 3 hours. Lectures may include the use of handouts, overhead slides and audio-visual presentations. Lecturing lets professors address the most people at once, in the most general manner, while still conveying the information that he or she feels is most important, according to the lesson plan. There will usually be less opportunity for you to interact and ask questions during a lecture, than during a seminar or tutorial.

Tutorial

A tutorial is a class conducted by your tutor. Your tutorials will normally last between 1-2 hours and will typically be in a smaller group than your lecture, with classes of between 15 to 30 students. Your tutorials will enable you to complete assigned activities, develop specific skills and discuss any problems you may have with the study topics. It is less formal than a lecture. A tutorial can take many forms, ranging from a set of instructions to complete a task to an interactive problem solving session.

Difference Between a Workshop, Conference, Seminar, Symposium and Colloquium

Workshop

A Workshop includes all the elements of the Seminar, but with the largest portion being emphasized on “hand-on-practice” or laboratory work. The Lab work is designed to reinforce, imprint and bring forward an immediate functioning dimension to the participant’s eye and hands by implementing and practicing the actual concept or technique that was taught through the lecture and demonstration process.

A workshop paper isn’t technically a publication and is typically meant to represent work-in-progress

Conference

Conferences are occasional or annual meetings organized by a committee, with a group of appointed paper reviewers who review submissions and select the most suitable, original, best etc. papers for publication in a book: ‘conference proceedings’. A Conference refers to a formal meeting where participants exchange their views on various topics. Conference can take place in different fields, and it need not be academic in nature all the time. Thus, we have parent teacher conferences, sport conferences, a trade conference, a conference of journalists, conference of doctors, a conference of research scholars, and so on. A conference is a meeting that has been prearranged and involves consultation and discussion on a number of topics by the delegates.Conference and symposium are similar events where speakers come together and give their opinions on a chosen subject. Symposium can be described as a smaller conference that gets over in a single day with a lesser number of delegates.

Conferences are self-funded – i.e. people attend because they are interested in the conference subject matter. People who attend pay a registration fee, which provides for e.g. a printed book of proceedings for all registrants.

Seminar

A Seminar is a form of academic instruction, either at a university or offered by a commercial or professional organization. It has the function of bringing together small groups for recurring meetings, focusing each time on some particular subject, in which everyone present is requested to actively participate. The Instructor has prepared the concepts and techniques they will present and discuss through a combination of visual materials, interactive tools or equipment, and demonstrations. It includes some take home material for the participants that relates to the lecture. A full laboratory phase is not a requirement.

Seminars are generally of shorter duration and it is possible to have several business seminars inside a conference which may last for a few days. A seminar may be organized to enhance the skills of people involved in a particular profession. In such a case, experts are called who give lectures to the participants and all participants receive a certificate at the end of the seminar

Symposium

A Symposium is a formal gathering in an academic setting where participants are experts in their fields. These experts present or deliver their opinions or viewpoints on a chosen topic of discussion. It would be correct to label a symposium as a small scale conference as the number of delegates is smaller. There are the usual discussions on the chosen topic after the experts have presented their speeches. The chief characteristic of a symposium is that it covers a single topic or subject and all the lectures given by experts are completed in a single day. A Symposium – prestigious conferences, generally leading venues in their respective fields.

a meeting or conference for the public discussion of some topic especially one in which the participants form an audience and make presentations

Colloquium

In academia, a colloquium typically consists of a single lecture given by a member of the academic community about his or her work to colleagues who work in the same or an allied field. The audience is expected to ask questions and to evaluate the work presented. Colloquia provide scholars with the opportunity to face and respond to criticism in the early stages of the development of new ideas.

Colloquium is usually a academic meeting at which specialists deliver addresses on a topic or on related topics and then answer questions relating to them