B.A.
II YEAR SPECIAL ENGLISH
PAPER-I:
PART-II: MODERN LANGUAGE
NOTES
PREPARED
BY
K
L PRAPHULLA MA., C.T.E., B.Ed
LECTURER IN ENGLISH
SCHOOL OF DISTANCE EDUCATION
ANDHRA UNIVERSITY
SYLLABUS
UNIT-1
A) Poetry from Elizabethan Age to the Pre-Romantic
B) Spenser : Sonnet, “One Day I Wrote Her Name”
Milton :
L’Allegro
Donne :
The Canonization
Pope : Extract from “The Rape of the Lock”
(Cantos I&II)
Blake :
The School Boy
UNIT-2
A) Development of Drama :
16th & 17th
Century British Drama
B) Shakespeare :
Othello
UNIT-3
A) Prose : Origin and Development of the Essay; kinds
B) Bacon : Of Youth and Age
Steele :
One Judicious Flattery
Lamb
: Dream Children
Chesterton :
On Lying in Bed
UNIT-4
A) Fiction : Origin
and Development of the Novel
B) Jane Austen : Pride
and Prejudice
1.
Poetry from
Elizabethan Age to the Pre-Romantic
Characteristics of neo-classical school of poetry:
Neo classical poets are mostly realists. They tried to express the
plain unravished truth. The early no-classical writers sought to paint
realistic pictures of a corrupt court and society. They emphasized vices rather
than virtues. It was the literature of the society.
Dominance of reason and good sense:
neo classical poetry is marked by dominance of reason and good sense. It
has no room for the imagination, enthusiasm emotion and mysticism. That is why
this poetry appeals to ones intellect and reasoning.
Pre-occupation with the town
life: neo-classical poetry is
exclusively the poetry of the town life lived by the fashionable persons in the
great city of London.
Absence of the romantic element: Their poetry was purely classical
but not romantic. The world light for the neo-classists was the light on land
and the sea. It was purely of earth. The word nature for them was not that of
Keats or Wordsworth.
Simplicity, directness and polish: Simplicity, directness and
polish in the manner of expression are
the marks of Neo-classical poetry. Thy disfavoured mere suggestions and half
statements. It was a close, naked and natural way of speaking.
Cavalier Poetry:
Cavalier poetry was largely the
poetry of courts. Cavalier poets wrote light poetry reflecting the easy going
life of the courtiers. Robert Herric, Thomas Crashaw, Sir John Suckling and
Richard Lovelace belong to this school
of poetry. Robert Herric was a supporter of the king in the his struggle with
the parliament. The bulk of his poetry was written under the influence of the
court. Robert Herric was a priest so he wrote religious poetry. Thomas Crashaw
was a follower of John Donne but he had his political connections. Sir John
Suckling had a very short life and wrote only a few poems. Of his poems the
best one was, “Out Open it! I have Loved”. Richard Lovelace was the last among the
Cavalier poets. His poems too have real merit.
Puritan Poetry: (Classical poetry)
The very opposite of Cavalier
poets were the Puritan poets. They sang of loftier things and in sober vein.
Andrew Marvell and John Milton were the chief poets of the school of poetry.
Among the Puritan poets, John Milton was a remarkable and famous writer. He is
known for his grand style and lofty themes. For a few years he turned to prose
to express his views on the burning topics of the day. Then he turned to poetry
of different themes, mostly religious.
John Milton as a Classical poet
John Milton is one of the
greatest poets of all times. He is the
poet of steadfast will and purpose who moved like a god amid fears and hopes
and changing impulses of the world. Milton was a puritan by nature. He is an
incomparable scholar of high depth. The word grand suits his style . it
produces an impression of sublimity his style was unconciously sublime because
he lived and thought in an for classi sblime atmosphere. Some of his famour
works are l’allegro, Lycidas, Comus, Paradise lot, Samson Agonistes, Paradise
Regained. John Milton is the lat great poet of English Renaissance. He combined
in him the renaissance passion for classical learning. Paradise Lost is the
greatest epic in English.
Shakespeare and Milton are the two
great figures that made English literature famous. Milton has been praised for
his lofty conception and his great epic design. He is also a consummate literary
artist. His style was admired, misunderstood and imitated throughout the
century. According to Mark Patisson, Shakespeare and milton are more than
English. They are of all countries –Milton no less than Shakespeare.
The Metaphysical
school of poets:
By the end of the 16th and the beginning of the
17th century there was a revolt against the outdated and exhausted
Elizabethan poetry. The leaders of this revolt were Ben Jonson and John Donne.
‘Meta’ means beyond, and ‘physics’ means physical nature. The word
‘metaphysical’ was first used in connection with Donne’s poetry.
The following are the
characteristics of Metaphysical poetry:
It is heavily overloaded with conceits which may be defined
as excessive use of over elaborated similes and metaphors. Further they are
most farfetched, remote and unfamiliar. Metaphysical poets have always
perceived similarity between dissimilar objects. Their images are logical and intellectual
rather than sensuous and emotional. They begin their poems abruptly. Often the
openings are colloquial. As a result their poems take a dramatic form.
John Donne is the leader of this school. George Herbert,
Richard Crashaw, Henry Vaughan are the popular names.
2. One
Day I Wrote her Name upon the Sand
-Edmund Spencer
Edmund Spenser was born in 1552. He was educated at
Cambridge. He became friend of Sir Philip Sydney. His famous work is Faerie
Queene. In 1594 he married Elizabeth Boyle.
Spencer says he wrote his beloved’s name on the sea shore
but the waves came and washed away her name. again he wrote her name with a
great labour. But a big tide came and wasted his labour. That is her name is
again washed away. So she said the poet’s labour went waste. He wanted to make
her name permanent. But the life of man itself is not permanent. So it is
futile to try to immortalise a thing.
She says that she herself likes the decay in life and her
name should be wiped out from this world. The poet said that it should not
happen like that. The basic things may die in dust. But she will live by her
fame. The poet will write poetry about her great virtues. Her virtues are rare.
Her name will be written in heaven because of his beautiful poetry. If death
controls every thing her love makes their life fresh, eternal and purposeful.
Technically Spenser’s sonnet contains three quatrains and a
couplet standing alone. The language of the sonnet is lovely and richness of
its melody is its remarkable features.
The poem conveys a beautiful message human actions will perish in no time. That
is the basic things may die in dust but his beloved lives forever in his poems.
His poems on her make his beloved’s name and virtues immortal. Not only in the
earthly world but also in heaven. Spenser’s sonnets have a distinct mark of the
English renaissance.
3. L’Allegro
-Milton
“L’Allegro” is one the well known and highly admired poems
of Milton. The poems “L’Allegro” describes a day in the life of a cheerful man.
The cheerful man drives out melancholy. He thinks that
melancholy is born of fearful and dark thoughts. A sorrowful man loves to live
in dark places and he is jealous.
A cheerful man welcomes the goddess of Mirth with all her
attendants- jokes jollity, puns, becks and smiles, laughter and liberty. These
drive away cares and sorrows. He prays that he may enjoy free and happy life
from dawn to dusk.
The cheerful man surveys many pleasing objects like lawns,
mountains, clouds, meadows, brooks, rivers and towers where beautiful ladies
live. Sometimes the cheerful man is attracted by the delights of the peasant
life- his dance, merriments of festivals. There the peasants dance to the
accompaniment of drums. Then they take ale and eat milk dainties, tell stories
and sleep happily fanned by the winds.
The cheerful man enjoys the city life too with its confused
noises, rich feasts, literary men, and beautiful ladies. There are marriages,
exhibitions and masques, and streams haunted by fairies. Then he go to the
theatre to enjoy the comedies Ben Jonson and Shakespeare. Thus the cheerful man
is happy anywhere and always.
He wants to guard himself against the cares that destroy the
life of man by reading poetry and listening to soft music .and sleep happily in
its lingering melody. If mirth gives him such delights
He will be really a cheerful man.
4. The Canonization
- John Donne
The word
'Canonization' means the act or process of changing an ordinary religious
person into a saint in Catholic Christian religion. The title
reflects the speaker’s conviction that in opposing the claims of the world
(business, courtly ambitions), he and his beloved have become love’s martyrs,
and therefore saints.
"The
Canonization" starts with the poem's speaker wanting to be left alone. He
addresses some unnamed person and demands that he (or she) shut their big
yapper and leave him in peace—to love. The speaker offers up plenty of other
stuff for this other person to make fun of, like his tremors, gray hair, thin
wallet, or even his gout.
Then he changes course
and tells this person to focus instead on making money, taking a class, studying
the arts, or observing folks like lawyers, bishops, or the king's face.
Essentially the speaker says, "Do whatever you want, pal, just leave me
alone."
Apparently, the person
he's addressing is not a good listener, because the speaker keeps at it. He
wants to know whom he's ever hurt by being in love. "Life goes on, even
though I'm in love," the speaker says, pointing out the soldiers and
lawyers still have plenty of business to attend to.
After making this point,
the speaker says that the addressed can call him and his lover whatever names
he wants to ("speaker and lover, sitting in a tree, k-i-s-s-i-n-g").
It's not the lovers' fault. After all, they were made that way by love. You can
call them flies (not nice), but they're also like candles that consume
themselves. The speaker also compares himself and his lover to an eagle and a
dove, and then says that they're like a phoenix. They rise and die together
and, thanks to their love, they're also very mysterious.
Speaking of death—if the
speaker and his lover do die, and if they're not fit to be memorialized by a
tomb or hearse, then they will just hang out in poetry. If the history books
won't have them, they'll live on in sonnets that commemorate them just as well
as any fancy urn or elaborate tomb. And he hasn't even gotten to the best part
yet. Thanks to these poems (which the speaker calls "hymns"), the
lovers will be canonized by everyone as saints.
The speaker's fantasy
starts to pick up steam now. The speaker and his lover will look down at everyone
and be irritated at how poorly they're loving, compared to how well the
lover-saints did it. (We can practically see him high-fiving himself.) He
imagines that folks back on Earth will pray to the lover-saints for guidance on
how to love properly.
5. The Rape of The Lock
(Canto I&II)
-Alexander Pope
The
poem The Rape of the Lock which is considered to be one of the masterpieces of
Pope is the blend of burlesque, witty, humorous, ironic, and morality, which is
rare in English poetry, was published in 1712. The Rape of the Lock opens with a brief letter from
Pope to the poem's real-life subject, Arabella ("Belle") Fermor. In
the letter, he explains why he wrote the poem in the first place, the
circumstances that led him to publish it, and why he dedicates it to Arabella.
The story is relatively
simple. Belinda (representing Miss Fermor) asleep but awakened about noon by
her lapdog Shock. Before she awakens, she dreams about Ariel, a Rosicrucian
sylph, who whispers praises in her ear and warns her to beware of jealousy,
pride, and especially men. When she does awaken, she finds a love letter on her
bed and, after reading it, quickly forgets all the advice that Ariel has given
her. She has been invited to sail up the Thames with friends to Hampton Court palace
and have fun and games with her host. She devotes much time to her cosmetics
and hair in preparation for the trip.
The Baron, a suitor, is
seen admiring a lock of her hair and vowing that he would have it by any means.
The modern reader must remember that, until the 1920’s, few women of character
would cut their hair, an act symbolizing the loss of virtue, even chastity. The
reader next sees the crew sailing up the Thames, with everyone but Ariel
apparently pleased with the state of affairs. Worried, Ariel summons his helper
sylphs and reminds them of their duty in helping to protect Belinda, one
especially to guard her fan, one her watch, another lock, and Ariel himself her
dog. A host of sylphs are assigned to guard her petticoat, a literal device of
armor in older times, protecting the female’s sexual chastity.
6. The School Boy
-William Blake
William Blake is one of the
greatest poets of the early 19th Century. Mysticism is the dominant
element in his poetry. In his poems, the poet highlights the hidden abilities
of man the imaginative and spiritual potentialities of the soul. The poem, ‘The
School Boy’ is taken from his early collection of poems ‘The Songs of
innocence’.
The school boy wants to wake up
early in the summer morning. The musical chirping of the birds on every tree,
the blowing of the distant huntsman’s horn, and the sweet song of the skylark
make him spell-bound.
The little boy is unwilling to go
to school because it drives away all his joy. To him school is a place of
punishment under the watchful eye of his strict teacher and his cruel
treatment. The little one has to spend the day in disappointment.
The school boy sits droopingly in the
class room. He is deeply worried. He grows so anxious of punishment that he
cannot pay attention to the lessons. He doesn’t like to sit in the learning
bower because the lessons are not interesting.
The school boy is rightly compared
to a caged bird. The bird cannot sing happily in captvity. Likewise, the
depressed school boy cannot enjoy the pleasure of his childhood. His
imagination wishes to soar but he can’t.
Just as the birds, blossoms, and plants are protected from
rough weather during the spring, the children’s joy and freedom should be
protected in the tender age. Only then can they grow into physically and
mentally strong individuals. If teachers are stern and severe, students cannot
learn.
THE SCHOOL BOY
-William Blake
William Blake (1757-1827) was one of the greatest poets of
the early 19th century. Mysticism is the dominant element in his
poetry. In his poems, the pot highlights the hidden abilities of man and the
imaginative and spiritual potentialities of the sou. The poem, “The School Boy”
is taken from one of his early collection of poems, “The songs of Innocence”,(1789)
The poet identifies himself with the school boy. He feels
pity at the innocent school boy who is almost imprisoned in a ‘learning bower
‘. The boy is denied the simple joys that a bird enjoys.
The school boy intends to wake up early in the summer
morning. The musical chirping of the birds on every tree appeals to him.
The blowing of the horn of the distant
huntsman enthralls him. Even the little skylark makes him spell-bound with its
sweet song.
The boy is reluctant to go to school in the summer morning
as it drives all his joy. He prefers the company of nature, to school. To the
school boy, the school is but a place of punishment. Under the watchful eye of
the school teacher and his ruthless treatment , the little ones have to spend
the day in deep disappointment.
The school boy sits droopingly before his teacher. He is
deeply worried at that hour. He grows so anxious that he cannot pay attention
to the lessons. He does not like to sit in the learning bower where he finds
the teaching uninteresting.
The boy is rightly compared to a caged bird. The bird cannot
sing happily in a cage. Likewise, the boy who loses heart cannot enjoy the
pleasure of his childhood. His imagination wants to soar but he cannot do so.
The wishes for a free and happy growth. The little ones are
like the bus an tender plants. The buds blossoms and tender plants should
neither be plucked now blown away by strong ins. They should be protected from
the vagaries of weather. They should be allowed to pass their time in joy in
the springing day.
With the advent to winter blasts in the springing day, the
bus, blossoms and the tender plants are all destroyed. So, we cannot gather
summer fruits and feel the summer joys
Just as the buds, blossoms and tender plants are protected
from the vagaries of weather, so the little children should also be protected
from cares and worries at their tender age.
7. DEVELOPMENT OF DRAMA
Morality plays: a
Morality is an allegory cast in the form of a play. The very purpose of this
type play was to display the struggle between good and evil in the life of man.
The characters for moralities were personification of abstractions such as
mankind, mercy, justice, peace, the seven deadly sins, goo and bad ages, old
age and death. The hero would be the personification of humanity in general.
E.g. Everyman
Comedy of Manners
Congreve’s mastery in the Comedy
of Manners is unchallenged. He brought the Comedy of Manners into perfection.
It concerns with the social postures adopted by human beings than with their
natural endowments. Men and women are measured according to their capacity to
adjust graciously and intelligently to the social code of the day. This gives
the play a decisive topicality. But Congreve is against the social code of the
day . His “The Way of the World” is certainly the finest comedy of the
Restoration period. The pursuit of love and money is the issue of the play.
Elizabethan Drama(trends)
in the earlier part of the
Elizabethan period, a very large proportion of the drama was in verse. The
great dramatists were poets. In course of time many writers came forward to
prove the genis in the art of writing dramas for several reasons.
The theatre was open to all in the
Elizabethan period in England. The whole of London town was attracted by drama
and enthusiastic for it. It was truly national. The theatre took the place of
the church which they neglected.
Drama was the most important
source of intellectual pleasure as there were no news papers in those days. The
drama started providing a communion of patriotism instead of the old communion
of faith. According to the taste of the audience the dramatist used to create
tears or laughter for which he was rewarded. Due to this reason we find hardly
a poet or prose writer in this period, who did not at some time turn his
attention to drama. In the early Elizabethan period there was blank verse. But
slowly this trend declined.
Ben Jonson as a dramatist
In 1592 Ben Jonson started his
career as an actor. After trying to work for others’ plays for a while, he
settled down to write his own play. In 1592 he scored his major success as a
dramatist with his “Every Man in his Humour”. Next followed his comedies and
tragedies. He studied the manners of the time with the clean eye of social
artist. His favorite characters are men dominated by humor. Jonson’s first
characteristic play “Every Man in his Humour” gives a foretaste of better
things to come.
Shakespare’s men and women
are universal but they tell us
comparatively little about the ways of Elizabethan England. Although Ben
Jonson’s women and men are mostly types and failed to awaken the deepest human
interest, historically however, they are extremely important. Ben Jonson was
the real founder of what is known as the comedy of manners and his influence on
successive dramatists was very great.
Shakespearean tragedy
A.C.Bradley the famour critic
defines Shakespearean tragedy as a story of exceptional calamity lading to the
death of a man in high estate, owing to some weakness in him. In the light of
the definition three points can be taken into consideration. The hero of
tragedy is a man of high estate. He shall be a man of high estate and a leader
on whose actions depends the state of the country. Shakespeare fixed only great
men in office and in high rank as heroes of his tragedies. Lear is the king of
England. Othello is the moor of Venice. He is a great warrior who has fought
many battles. Macbeth is a great warrior and General of Scotland. Hamlet is the
prince of Denmark. Julius is a great warrior. The fate of their countries
depend on their actions.
Each hero has a weakness that is
responsible for one’s fall. Lear is imperious and foolish. Othello is jealous
and suspicious. Macbeth is ambitious. Hamlet suffers from indecision. Caeser is
imperious and ambitious. Shakespeare’s
opinion may be character is destiny. There is a flaw in every hero that led
them to his fall.
Miracle and mystery plays
The miracle and mystery plays
almost belong to the 15th century in England. They were the outcome
of combined ecclesiastical and social developments. The dramatic activity
originated to conduct Christian teachings in churches. Performances were
organized mainly during religious festivals like Christmas and Easter. In the
course of time these performances had taken the shape of Miracle plays. These
dramas used to illustrate biblical event connected with creation to dooms day.
They were all performed in the churches under the direct control of the clergy
men. The language used was Latin.
In the second stage the venue was
shifted from the church to the church yard as on great occasions people
thronged the church. As the crowds increased the venue was shifted to the main
streets or market places, or some convenient open places. But the plays were
distinctly religious.
8. Othello
-Shakespeare
Summary:
On a street in Venice, there is an argument between Roderigo, a
nobleman, and Iago, an ancient (captain) in the defense forces.
Roderigo, in love with the noble lady Desdemona, has paid large sums of money
to Iago, on the understanding that Iago would give her gifts from him and
praise him to her. Roderigo hopes to win Desdemona's love and marry her.
However, they now have news that Desdemona has left the house of her father,
Brabantio, a Senator, and eloped with Othello, a Moor (an African) who is a
General in the defense forces.
Roderigo fears he has lost both his lady and his money. Iago
reveals to Roderigo that it is in his (Iago's) nature to plot and tell lies to
get what he wants and that he has a plan. He hates Othello for promoting Cassio
to the position of lieutenant, a position that Iago wanted for himself. Iago
plans to bring about Othello's downfall, and Roderigo will have Desdemona.
First, they must wake Brabantio and cause an outcry. They bang and shout until
Brabantio comes out onto the balcony. Iago tells him in inflammatory words that
Desdemona has run away with Othello, and Brabantio, enraged, joins Roderigo to
wake the neighbors and organize a search party.
Plot
Construction& Structural Design:
The structure of Othello is in the exemplary structure for a
Shakespearean tragedy. Act I constitutes the article of the play, where the
group of audience is acquainted with the time and spot of the show, to the
real characters, and to the circumstances that will be produced in the plot.
The conflict is produced through the climbing activity found in Acts II and
III, where Iago plants and develops the seeds of jealousy in Othello’s psyche.
The peak is arrived at right on time in Act IV when Othello freely strikes
Desdemona, demonstrating that he has lost restraint and succumbed to the evil
and lies of Iago. After this, the plot hurries through the falling activity to
the tragic completion.
The plot is unified through time, place, and character. From the
time the play opens until Othello kills himself, just a couple of days pass.
The time is short to the point that the group of audience need to extend
its creative ability to accept that so much could happen in so short a period,
that a man could do such a sudden change in his essential being in such a
couple of days. The play is likewise unified set up. Despite the fact that the
opening section happens in Venice, the genuine setting for the show is Cyprus,
and all the move of the play makes put on that little island inside a couple of
areas. The play is likewise unified by characters, with Othello and/or Iago
ruling a large portion of the scenes and the greater part of the activity.
9.KINDS OF ESSAY
The chief
character of the essay We can conform the following features as the
characteristics of the literary essay.
Length of the
essay:- A literary essay is brief, short or of moderate length,
according to Edmund Gosse. An essay is a composition of a moderate length. To
maintain shortness of the essay, the writer has to select his material. If a
composition becomes elaborate and lengthy it ceases to be an essay.
Subject Matter:-There
are no restrictions with regard to the subject matter. It may be historical or
scientific or political or any other subject.
As the essay is very brief, the essayist feels it difficult to say all
that is to be said on the subject. He writes only those aspects of the subject
matter, which he considers most significant and leaves out the rest. One of the
famous essayists, Bacon described some
of his essays as civil and some as moral. The civil essays are on political and
administrative questions like love, music and the problem of parents and
children.
Personal in nature:-According
to Edmund Gosse an essay will have the subject only as it affects the writer.
It is personal in nature. In the essays of
Charles Lamb we find this autobiographical element.Ex: - Dream Children
Informal and
unsystematic:-Johnson emphasized that
an essay is an undigested piece and aloose sally of the mind. There is
no logical or formal development of thought in an essay. The points or
arguments may not be in a systematical order.
Attractive and the
charming:-A good essay should be attractive. It must have some sense
of humour. It must be charming, so that
it may be easily retained in the mind.
Prose composition:-It
is meant to touch the hearts of ordinary people. A poem is intelligible only to
the intellectuals. A drama is equally difficult for common men to
understand. But an essay is very easy
for anyone to understand.
Essay and its
meanings
A literary
composition on any subject usually in prose and short is an essay. Literally
the essay means an attempt. Every essay is written for a reader. A good essay
must hold the reader’s attention. It must be based on one’s own thinking and
experience which gives one the opportunity to set down ones thoughts’ feelings
and experiences, which so far as they are relevant to the subject of the piece.
They must be written and presented in an interesting and attractive manner.
The features of
good essay: -
1. Unity:
-The
essay is divided into paragraphs. In the same manner the paragraphs are divided into sentences.
They should be unity of design in the essay considered as a whole as well as in
its parts.
2. Coherence: - The ideas
expressed in the essay should hang together logically. Great attention must be
paid to the arrangement of one’s thoughts. Otherwise the essay will be
confusing and incoherent.
3. Balance: -There must be proper proportion between
its various parts. Every point should receive its due share of emphasis- no more and no less. The
space devoted to the development of an idea should be in exact proportion to
the importance of the idea in relation to the other ideas in the essay.
4. The structure of the essay: - Every essay has
its structure- a beginning, a middle and a conclusion.
Bacon’s Essays
Bacon was the eloquent
voice of the optimism and resolution of the renaissance. He was a stimulus to
other thinkers. Bacon is the greatest, the most universal and the eloquent
philosopher. In theology he was a curious investigator. He took on knowledge
for his province. Bacon published 10 essays in 1597, 38 essays in 1612, and 58
essays in 1625 to guide men. These essays have won a place in the history of
English literature.
The Formal Essay A
formal essay is one that is relatively impersonal. Here the author writes as an
authority and expends the subject in an ordered and thorough fashion. Most of
his essays are written in the third person mode, may be, because it helps the
author maintain the necessary distance from the topic under review and argue
out his perspective more systematically. It also helps the readers look at the
viewpoints objectively, follow the argumentative line of the author without
bias.
The Informal Essay
The most striking element of the informal essay is the tone of
intimacy. The author strikes with the reader. Here, the author concerns himself
with informal, everyday matters rather than formal matters of public interest.
During the course of the essay “through the use of an impersonal, the informal
and often humorous style” they carry the reader along. .informal essays are
also known as personal essays.
Ex: - Essays of ELIA by Charles Lamb.
Personal Essay A
few great writers used the form of the essay to reveal and exploit their own
personality. Montaigne was the first person as a writer of this kind. Charles
Lamb is considered to be the ‘prime of personal essayist’. Charles
Lamb’s “Essays of Elia” is a
delightful book consisting of many personal essays. These essays are highly
entertaining as they are a blend of autobiography, fancy, humour, sentiment and
amusement. E.V.Lucas, Hunt, William
Hazlitt, W.M.Thackeray and many others used this form of personal essay.
The Periodical and
Social Essay At the beginning of the 18th century,
journalism became popular. The essay began to appear in periodicals. The
subjects were drawn from the manners and defects of the people in the society.
Joseph Addison and Richard Steele were “the masters of the periodical and
social essays”. Richard Steele started a journal “Tattler” in 1709,
with the clear aim of recommending a general simplicity in dress, discourse and
behaviour. He advises the readers to pull off the disguises of cunning, vanity
and affectation. In 1711, Richard Steele in association with Addison started
another journal “The Spectator”. Most of the essays were written to
serve social purpose. The periodical essay was adopted for literary criticism.
‘Jonathan Swift and Dr. Samuel Jhonson’ are famous essayists.
The Critical Essay
During the restoration period John Dryden introduced a new variety
called the critical essay. The themes or the subject matters of his essays were
of literary value and are thoroughly discussed in the essay.
Two of his best known are : -
“The
essay on Dramatic Poesy” and
“The
Preface to Eables”
The Aphoristic
Essay Montaigne’s aim of writing essays is to reveal himself. “I am
myself the subject of my book” says he. Hence, he is taken the father of the
subjective or the personal essay. Francis Bacon is the originator of the essay
in England. But he has taken a different line from Montaigne. His essays do not
describe the man himself. He gives an objective (or) impersonal turn. His main
aim is to give “counsels, civil and moral” to his readers. These counsels are
conveyed in short, crisp, pithy
sentences that read like aphorisms or maxims.
10. Of Youth and Age
-Bacon
11. ON
JUDICIOUS FLATTERY
-
Sir. Richard Steele
Sir. Richard
Steele was genial, impulsive and good
natured. He took active part in the politics of his day. He was twice chosen
Member of Parliament. Richard Steele and Addison are always associated on
account of their collaboration in the periodical essay.
Richard Steele divides
the flatterers into three categories. The first type praisers, of others
are unclever civilians. The second type always agrees with you and never
contradicts what you speak. The third and the best flatterer is one who
disguises flattery under a spirit of contradictions.
Steele’s worldly
knowledge enabled him to select certain aspects of man. He studied the true
nature of those who flattered others. Flattery is the nicest art in life. It is
a part of their eloquence. There is nothing required for it. The patient
listeners of flatterers are their well – wishers. Praise from an enemy is the
most pleasing of all praises.
A pleasant
flatterer must be of great imperfections. He should be inferior to the man whom
he praises. He must be an easy companion and be useful when he is alone. Such
flatterers are the great benefactors of the rich. A good flatterer never
contradicts but gains the support of his listeners (or) victims.
Most of the
people are inclined to be flattered by others. It is an ingrained quality in
man. The pleasure of flattery is something like receiving money, which is lying
out.
12. DREAM
CHILDREN
- Charles Lamb
Charles Lamb is
one of the greatest English essayists. He is master of the personal essay. His
literary output was not large though he attempted various forms. Lamb is at his
best in his essays written under the pen name of ‘Elia’.
The present essay
‘Dream Children’ is called a‘reverie’. When his brother John died, Lamb
was full of grief and agony. The sad event created a spiritual loneliness in
his mind. Hence, he expressed his feelings in the form of a dream. This is
autobiographical.
One evening two
of his children Alice and John crept to him to hear about their grandmother,
Mary field. He went on telling the children how religious and virtuous their
grandmother was. She was loved and respected by every lady. He kept Mary Field
as his custodian.
When Mary Field
died, there was a large gathering for her funeral. This shows her good nature.
She was highly religious and knew by heart all the psalms. She was courageous
and could sleep alone in that big house, though it was supposed that the ghosts
of the two children haunted it. She loved all her grand children. Charles used
to spend his holidays there.
Lamb told his
children that their mother loved all of them. She loved Uncle John a little
more than others, because he was kind, brave and handsome. He also explained to
his children the true nature of their dead mother. The children did not speak
anything. ‘It is an indication that they are only ‘Dream Children’.
This essay is a fine blend of facts and fiction.
The reality lies in the description of his grandmother, Mary Field. As Lamb was
a bachelor, it is clear that the story is fiction. They appear in a dream. It
is indirectly the expression of sorrow, pathos and grief over the death of his
beloved brother. For his loneliness, we sympathize with Charles Lamb. His style
is antique and attractive.
13. ON LYING
IN BED
-G.K.Chesterton
‘G.K.Chesterton’ was a
versatile English writer, who wrote essays, history, short stories, fiction,
criticism, poetry and drama. He came to be known as the master of pathos. The
special feature of his essays is lively wit and paradoxical style. The present essay “on lying in bed” is
delightful and lively. He says that lying in bed would be a perfect and great
experience. But the person lying should have a coloured pencil to draw on the white ceiling, the
figures he likes most.
But a coloured pencil is rarely found
in common household articles. He advises that white ceiling will be suitable
one to draw an artistic composition.
Chesterton imagines that he might
never find some blank space to have his beautiful experiment of drawing while
lying in bed. He is disappointed as he has failed to find a clear space even in
the modern living rooms. There are some symbols on the walls which have no
philosophic or religious significance. Chesterton finds a conflict between
traditionalism and modernism. The modern concept of lying in bed is considered
to be unhealthy and hypocritical.
14. Origin and development of the novel
What is a novel?
Ans: The word ‘Novella’ is an Italian
word which means ‘a new little thing’. From the novella the English word
novel is derived. It meant a short narrative in purpose.
Kinds of a novel:-
Humanitarian Novel:
A novel is a
social document. It deals with joys and sorrows, laughter’s and tears, longings
and aspirations of man. It can be stated that novel is the instrument of self
examine. It has to give morals and customs.
Humanitarian novel began with fielding
the Victorian age has proved a congenial atmosphere for humanitarian fiction.
The industrial revolution was both a blessing and a curse for the growth of
humanitarian novel. Charles Dickens ‘Oliver Twist’, ‘Hard Times’ are the
humanitarian novels by Charles Dickens.
Autobiographical Novel:-‘John
Bunyan’ the great religious writer may be called the first autobiographical
novelist. According to Stephen every writer consciously or unconsciously puts
himself into his novels and exhibits his own character even more distinctly
than that of his heroes. A novel is undoubtedly a portrait of life. It grows
out of life. Bunyan makes a spiritual analysis in his great ‘Grace abounding’,
‘Samuel Richardson’ and ‘Fielding’ are distinctly autobiographical both of them
put part of themselves in their novels. Oliver Goldsmith’s, “Vicar of wake
field” is autobiographical. The novels of ‘Jane Austen’, “Pride and
prejudice” is also autobiographical.
Historical Novel:-The Historical novel is a kind of a
novel, which has been existing since the age of ‘Sir Walter Scott’. According
to M.H.Abrams the historical novel takes its setting and some of the characters
and events of a history. ‘Jonathan
Field’ opines that a novel becomes historical by the introduction of dates,
events to which identification can be readily given.
Detective Novel:-
Crime is as
old as human civilization. The story of the detection of a crime is the theme
of detective fiction. It has become immensely popular today. Every day we come
across numerous reports of murder, rape and arson in the newspaper. We forget
them as soon as we read them. An artist with his creative imagination
translates the reports into a detective novel. Readers of all age groups read
such fiction.
The first
detective fiction writer is ‘William Godwin’ although his reputation rests on
his political works.
Dramatic Novel:
A Dramatic
novel is a novel with dramatic qualities. Dramatic in the context of the novel
is one complication of life leading to the intensification of action. The
characters in the novel influence and shape the course of events. The identity
of appearance and reality, character and action is the essence of a dramatic
novel. The plot of the dramatic novel is very intensive. Normally the author is
not visible in a dramatic novel.
Ex: - Jane Austen’s, “Pride and Prejudice.
The Regional Novel: Novel
though of relatively recent origin is becoming increasingly popular in the
modern times. It is the only medium through which we can discuss the great
majority of the problems which are raised. It deals with political, social and
religious questions of the day. The regional novel emphasizes setting, speech
and customs of a particular locality. Bronte the sisters Charles Emily, Annie
and Hardy’s novels may rightly be called regional novels.
Psychological Novel:-
Mrs.
Gaskell, George Elliot and Meredith wrote psychological novels. Many
psychologists have explored the dark recesses of the psyche. Novelists also
studied the psyche of main characters in their novels. In a psychological novel
there is hardly any story. The primary consideration of the novelists is to
portray the mental state of the character in the novel. Henry James, George
Elliot have mastered this type of novel. Joyce’s Ulysess is the best example
for psychological novel.
The 20th Century Novel:-The 20th century novelist
utilized the portrayal of these changes
for the development of the novel. Some of the novelists like H.G. Wells used
traditional methods to make their novels bring social and political charges.
The novelists who used novel to bring about social and political changes are
called ‘Edwardians’. The other group of novelists are called Georgians who made
deliberate and conscious innovations in the art of novel writing in style as
well as in contents. During the 20th century, novelists wanted to
relate everything to the contemporary vision of life.
19th Century Novel The 19th century could
witness the process of refinement in the
art of novel writing. Jane Austen discarded sensationalism from the novel. In
its place she started giving ample scope for a detail and analytical study of respectable
society as we understand from her novels like “Pride and Prejudice”. Novelists like Bronte sisters who came after
Jane Austen have included terror as an element to heighten a human story of
passion without any trace of absurdity.
The novels of Charles Dickens
developed a new phase in the history of the English novel. His fiction was
exclusively for the reformation of the society for the 19th century.
Thomas and George Meredith were the outstanding figures in novel writing.
The Stream of Consciousness Novel
The stream of
consciousness in modern fiction had its birth during 1913 – 1915. Those
novelists who used this technique turned from external to internal priority;
from the outer world to the world of fantasy and reverie. They wrote essentially
subjective fiction which contains a strange kinship of search and voyage and
pilgrimage of the mind through consciousness. William James first used this term ‘stream of
consciousness’ in his book “Principles of Psychology” to describe the plucks of
the mind, its continuity and its continuous change through the human
consciousness. It is an amalgam of all that we have experienced and continue to
experience. It is the exploration of the psychology of thought consciousness.
15. PRIDE AND PREJUDICE
-Jane Austen
Jane Austen as a
novelist:
The Victorian Age is mainly the age of the novel. The novel
became n increasingly popular literary form.
The narrative tended to be more realistic choosing individual problems
and social relationships. The novel moved on from mere story-telling to a
subtle craft. Another feature of this age was the appearance on the scene a
number of woman writers with a stamp of originality.
Jane Austen (1775-1817) may be said to begin the novel of
realism in English. She chooses as background to her novels a restricted social
class, the upper middle-class looking up to the aristocracy. Some of her famous
novels are: Pride and Prejudice, Sense and Sensibility, Mansfield Park, Emma,
Persuasion, and Northanger Abbey. Miss Austen’s range was narrow. She never
ventured beyond her own experience and powers thereby, she achieved, as no
other English novelist ever has achieved, an even level of perfection.
Her novels are composed of the mostly commonplace materials.
They are wholly lacking in all the elements of great passion and strong action.
They are therefore slight in texture. But her touch was so sure, her humour so
subtle and her characterization so life-like, that all competent critics regard
her as one of the finest artist that English fiction has ever produced.
Her themes are the common problems of the upper middle
class, concerned mostly with marriageable girls and the match making mothers.
Her characters are accustomed to a quiet life. There is no sentimentalism and
no violence or passion. Sense and Sensibility contrasts two sisters in their
approaches to love. Pride and Prejudice, her most popular novel, is
about the conflict between the pride of the heroine, Elizabeth, and the
prejudice of the hero, Darcy, against her family. Much of the humour in this
novel flows from Mrs. Bennet, the mother, anxious to get married, her five
daughters.
Emma, Mansfield Park, and Persuasion, are some of the
other novels portraying strong-willed women and their lovers. Austen’s achievement
lies in her living characters, realism in dialogue, humour and subtle irony.
She never describes what she has not seen or experienced. She is free from the
urge to moralise or take sides with her characters. She is one of the greatest
novelists of her age. Sir Walter Scott
says, “Jane Austen has a talent for describing the involvements and feelings
and characters of ordinary life which is to me the most wonderful I ever met
with”.
Marriage as the theme
of Pride and Prejudice
The novel “Pride and Prejudice” deals with various aspects
of love and marriage. The love affair between Lydia and Wickham is base and
purely instinctive. Jane and Bingley’s love is pre, innocent and natural. It is
with Darcy and Elizabeth that the novelist portrays a deeper love relationship.
An insight into a puzzling and seemingly ill matched couple is provided by the
marriage of Mr. Collins to Charlotte Lucas. Yet for all its unaccountability
this relationship seems to be quite successful. “Older love” is treated favourably
in the marriage of Mr. and Mrs. Gardiner. It is criticized in the oddly matched
couple of Mr. and Mrs. Bennet.
Jane Austen once said that “Three or four families in a
country village were the very thing to work on”. “Pride and Prejudice” is concerned mainly
with everyday happenings in the lives of one class of people. There are no
violent scenes in the story. The language of love is refined and is free from
passion.
Mr. Bingley and Mr. Darcy provide an opportunity for
matrimonial alliance. Bingley falls in love with Jane and Darcy admires
Elizabeth. Collins wants to marry one of the Bennet Sisters, but in vain. He
selects Charlotte Lucas and marries her.
Lydia wants to marry Wickham, and finally elopes with him and gets
married. Darcy marries Elizabeth and Jane marries Bingley. Thus marriage is the
central theme of the novel. The lovely dances, the magnificent drawing rooms,
and the splendid dinners are meant for attracting bridegrooms. Everything is
arranged and carried out with the intention of marriage. Thus marriage is
essentially the theme of the novel.
Significance of the
title “Pride and Prejudice.”
Jane Austen is a
popular and talented novelist. Her novel Pride
and Prejudice originally bore the title First
Impressions. The original title was self explanatory. The chief characters
Darcy and Elizabeth are carried away by the first impressions of each other. On
the occasion of the first ball, Elizabeth overhears Darcy saying that she is
not temptingly beautiful to attract him to dance with her. She is convinced
that Darcy is very proud and disagreeable. Under the evil influence of Wickham,
Elizabeth goes too far on the road of prejudice. When Darcy proposes to her,
she refuses him hatefully. Her charm and refusal erode into his pride. Thus,
the story revolves around Darcy’s pride and Elizabeth’s prejudice. Hence the
title “Pride and prejudice” is also apt.
Darcy is not vain though he is proud. Towards the end of the
novel he confesses that, as the only child of his parents, he has been taught
to follow some principles. But it is no without pride. He admires Elizabeth.
His love for her breaks down his sense of barriers. Elizabeth learns more of
the true character of Darcy when she visits Pemberley. Gradually her prejudice
yields place to love. Darcy takes her
prejudice as a natural expression of her hurt pride. Therefore the title “Pride
and Prejudice” takes us more to the heart of the matter than the original
title. Thus, the present title is apt and beautiful.
Character of Darcy
Darcy is the hero of the novel, “Pride and Prejudice”. He is
the owner of the Pemberley estate of ten thousand pounds a year. He is twenty
seven. A fine, tall and handsome person, he makes a bad first impression on the
reader. He is proud and keeps aloof at a public get together at Meryton. His
manners have proved to be disgusting. It turns the tide of his popularity. He
hates Elizabeth. He is very rude to Sir William Lucas. On the other hand, Darcy
has some qualities. He is cultured, refined and well read. His generosity is revealed
by his treatment of his servants. He keeps up a fine library. He admires a
woman who improves her mind with reading.
He is clever enough to understand Miss Bingley’s tricks. He
often speaks ironically or sharply to her. However, he is not aware of the
extent of his own pride. He is certainly guilty of his pride in his attitude
towards Elizabeth’s relatives. Elizabeth is deeply hurt by his remarks on her
family.
When Darcy falls in love with Elizabeth, his pride makes him
confident of success. He did not imagine of Eliza’s reaction against his bad
remarks about her relations. He is not aware of the deep wound which he has
caused by drawing Jane’s lover away from her. When Elizabeth refuses his offer
of marriage, Darcy’s pride receives a rude shock. His final addresses to
Elizabeth are modest and tender. He admits his former faults. He praises his
dearest and loveliest Elizabeth for teaching him mature attitude to life.
Elizabeth .
Elizabeth (Lizzy) is the second daughter of the Bennets. She
is full of courage, wit and steadiness.
She frankly expresses what is in her mind. Her attraction to Wickham is the
result of mere feeling of the moment. Elizabeth differs from her mother in
having good taste and intelligence, together with a critical judgement. She
shows her independence and courage by not being threatened by Lady Catherine.
Darcy falls in love with Elizabeth, which she cannot respond
at first. She misunderstands Darcy at the beginning. She considers him to be a
man of pride. She thinks that he is responsible for the misery of Jane, by
separating Mr. Bingley from her. Moreover, she feels that she had done
injustice to Wickham. When she realizes the truth about Mr. Bingley and
Wickham’s worthlessness, her love for Mr. Darcy becomes intense. She repents
greatly for refusing to marry Darcy when he first proposed to her.
Elizabeth is a friend in sorrow. She is a well-wisher of her
family. Her warm-heartedness is shown in her concern for Jane’s suffering. She
consoles Jane when the latter is pining for Mr. Bingley. Being a shrewd and
sensible woman, Elizabeth understands that Wickham will marry anybody only for
the sake of money. Love and pride do not conflict any more in her mind. Her
cooler judgement forces Elizabeth to seek sympathy from Darcy. So she accepts
his second offer of marriage
